Motivation Of Employees Samples for Students †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Motivation Of Employees. Answer: Introduction: Motivational theories Employees forever need motivation. Whether it is initially or at later stage motivation always helps the firm to retain staffs for longer time. Staffs require motivation when it is about working for any firm. Behavior practitioners generally use motivational theories for benefiting the staffs of any organization (Bentley, 2013). Employees who are unsatisfied tend to carry lower level of job satisfaction. Few common motivators that are utilized to affect the job satisfaction within a very positive manner in reality are achievement and recognition, responsibility, advancement and work itself as well as growth. The theories for motivation are Maslows need hierarchy, Alderfers ERG theory and McClellands acquired needs theory and also Herzbergs two-factor theory. Maslows need hierarchy ranges the needs of staffs from highest till the lowest. The theory properly focuses on convinced needs first as well as then focuses on some other needs like safety and security but in some particular orde r. ERG theory by Alderfers uses Maslows five needs that are namely physiological, safety, esteem, self-actualization as well as social and also puts them in three needs which can comprise of more than single need into sole category (Carter, 1979). ERG needs actually are existence, growth and lastly is the relatedness. McClellands theory focuses upon needs of staffs for achievement, power and also affiliation that could be acquired via experience as well as training. Herzbergs dual factor theory also is last theory that actually links the job satisfaction with the motivating factors. Needs theories even are beneficial to needs of staffs (DiPlacido, 1976). A psychological behavioral process which motivates any individual to react in a specific way is actually referred as the process theories for motivation. In core, these theories also examine the way in which an entitys needs would affect his actual behavior for achievement of a goal regarding those needs. Such theories are generally used in any workplace context as well as there are many other theories that also examine the way in which staffs within any firm can get motivated (Fargus, 2000). The behavioral loom to place of work motivation is also known as the organizational behavioral modification. Such loom applies tenets of the behaviorism developed by scholar B.F. Skinner to properly promote staff behaviors which an employer thinks beneficial as well as discourage those which are not. Any stimulus which increases likelihood of the behavior is a reinforcing element. An effective use of the positive reinforcement will also be recurrent praise while some employee is actually learning a novel task (Gawel, 1997). Any staffs behavior could also be shaped at the time of learning process only if approximations of ideal behavior get praised otherwise rewarded. Frequency of the reinforcement is also a vital consideration. While common praise during learning procedure can be also beneficial, it could be difficult to sustain indefinitely. There Are Some Basic Characteristics And Features Of A Positive Workplace And Some Of Them Are Mentioned Below: Transparent as well as open communication In reality, a transparent as well as open type of communication actually addresses the staffs need to sense that the firm values their ideas and thinking. It is also what makes staffs sense that they actually belong to the firm and are a part and parcel of the organization. Work of these staffs then becomes very meaningful as the staffs know that their performance will be valued and also praised (Gruneberg, 1979). Work-Life Balance A positive workplace always has a good balance between work life and personal life of staffs. There exists some type of balance amid the work and the personal life of the employees. In common, having this sense of the balance improves the job satisfaction amongst the employees because then staffs start feeling that theyre actually not overlooking any other area of lives like family, and enjoyment and relaxation etc (Hackman, Oldham, Janson Purdy, 1975). Training plus development-focused Good work ecology also emphasizes on training as well as development of staffs and focuses as well as cares about the employees growth and development. This makes staffs feel belongingness towards the firm. Also good appraisal and timely evaluations are done and staffs are trained on routine basis. Recognition for the hard work Proper workplace recognizes the hard work and good results given by its staffs and even timely rewards them for their performances as well. Such facts encourage behaviors in the people working in the firm. This is even known as the positive reinforcement beneath operant conditioning in area of psychology. A mere reward here does not is monetary in the nature; at times even a very simple and verbal recognition by supervisor is one necessary to spur staffs motivation. Strong and tough team Spirit Being a social animal, people naturally seek proper support from their peers as well as seek to properly belong to any group. Good workplace having all positive ecology all around carries good teams and effective and tough team spirit in its ecology so that people feel totally supportive and dependent on each other while working in a team. In tough times, teams in such workplaces come together and deal with things and problems that arrive (Harris, Hackman Oldham, 1981). Positive Values Positive ecology in workplace also comprises of a positive values and good ethics as well as morale in the staff members. A supportive and ethical culture in the firm supports such ecology to be maintained. Such firms mission statement also reveals its basic philosophy toward the employees as well as shareholders. Employment website of such companies also advises that the mission statement could define behaviors which a firm finds exemplary at each level of themanagement plus staff. How Hr Designs Jobs To Motivate Employees An employer might incorrectly suppose that money only is the motivator for its staffs. For several people, the job design actually is equally important and plays the same role what fair remuneration plays in their motivation and tends to make them more effective and efficient (Kapoor, 2005). Job design actually has a vast influence upon staff motivation, job satisfaction as well as commitment towards their firm, and all of these have a very significant impact upon efficiency of the business. Jobs also are generally designed in that way which encourages the specialization. Work is even divided into some specific tasks, along with employee allotted to every task becoming extra skilled, accurate as well as efficient at carrying out and performing it. Moreover, a generally overlooked issue with work specialization is that it normally has negative effect on staff motivation. A staff might also become extra efficient as well as skilled at concluding a repetitive work. They sense that as lo ng as they finish their job adequately, there is actually no need for them to be worried with some other facet of business. A probable solution to such issue involves providing staffs with extra variety within the work. One method and technique to perform such plan is introducing the task of job rotation, where staffs move amid different jobs occasionally. Not merely this reduces repetitiveness of their task, but it even helps to develop a good team with very wider variety of skills (Korzynski, 2013). Another method to enhance employee motivation also is via job enlargement. Through this staffs are gradually provided more challenging and risky works and ones with greater responsibility and danger. Whilst one might think this could have opposite effect, several staffs enjoy learning and doing new things with each passing day as this helps them learn novel things and attain good and new knowledge every time. Job enrichment could be another tool and technique for motivation of staffs by the HR while designing jobs. It also involves providing staffs with extra control over work that they do. This develops a feeling of responsibility in them. By providing the staffs with extra authority as well as responsibility, an HR might encourage them for seeking out better as well as extra efficient ways for accomplishment of their task, which would also lead to very potential increase within productivity. Job enrichment enhances the capability of staffs and makes them extra effective and efficient in their tasks (Mok Yeung, 2005). Synthesis Of Hackman And Oldhams The idea and concept of the job characteristics replica focuses upon designing any job in a way that it properly motivates any person. Based upon job diagnostic and survey, Hackman Oldham developed such loom. Job characteristics also are objective and aim characteristics of the jobs, particularly extent to which jobs get designed in order to enhance internal motivation of work and job satisfaction of the job incumbents. Five core and basic job features, that are the task significance, autonomy, task variety and task identity as well as feedback, thought to be positively correlated with the job satisfaction as well as performance (Hackman Oldham, 1976). Skill variety is also ostensible variety as well as intricacy of the skills plus talents needed by any job to get performed. There are many facts that are related with this theory and some of them are as follows: Work Outcomes- a good mix of basic characteristics with all the psychological states actually influences the work outcomes like Job satisfaction and absenteeism as well as work motivation. This theory influences work outcomes as it deals with enhancement of skill sets of staffs, emphasizes on their growth plus development and also puts light on training of the staffs and their career development as well. Intrinsic work motivation- Job characteristic replica expects that if afore said job elements are present within a job, job incumbent would be extra likely to carry high interior work motivation, and high quality as well as performance, great satisfaction along with work as well as low absenteeism plus less turnover (Oldham Hackman, 1981). High quality performance of work is possible with this theory as the theory deals with elements that result in undertakings like encouragement without offering any monetary otherwise tangible incentive can also be done via this theory as it deals with many intangible elements of motivation like growth and development, career enhancement etc. Relation Amid Maslows Components Plus Job Characteristics Maslows hierarchy of need actually is a very sequential pact of needs, while, Hackman Oldhams theory does not carry any hierarchical arrangement. But both are literally interrelated. Maslows theory that talks about the needs and wants of staffs that if fulfilled can actually motivate them, are practically fulfilled and all the sets of tasks that can be done to motivate them and fulfill their needs in Maslows hierarchy are underlined in the Hackman Oldham theory. Maslow thought that any type of unsatisfied need, irrespective of the level of the hierarchy, could be a possible motivation. And same was the concept of job characteristic theory as well. Richard Hackman Greg Oldham in the year 1975 built and developed the Job Characteristic replica on basis of Herzbergs dual-Factor Theory, demonstrating how any proper job design could lead towards internal motivation of staffs and contribute towards better and extraordinary job performance. This theory also postulates that the five job characteristics actually lead towards three forms of psychological states that affect motivation as well as satisfaction of staffs (Thomas, 2009). Skill diversity is extent otherwise range of all the skills, abilities as well as talents of staffs. The extra they are capable to utilize these skills in job, the extra is their level towards job satisfaction. Thus, jobs always must be designed in proper way that would ensure utilization of very wide variety of the skills of people. An optimistic significance of any job gives the psychological satisfaction and happiness to. Autonomy is extent of the freedom supplied for any job. The extent of autonomy also depends on extent of the independence supplied to the staffs in taking decisions about the job scheduling, formulating of the procedures, and making of decision without any interference from others (Walsh, 1968). Skill variety and task identity as well as task significance also provide experienced and proper meaningfulness. Autonomy supplies experienced responsibility, while; feedback actually ensures the experienced knowledge of the results. In a nutshell, it is, it was and will forever remain a fact that motivation is a vital and foremost part of strategic human resource management. It is thus vital to identify organizational practices which can be actually used to promote cognitive, emotional as well as behavioral qualities which would positively affect employees as well as enhance their level of motivation (Whiteley, 2002). References Bentley, P. (2013). Job satisfaction around the academic world. Dordrecht: Springer. Carter, L. (1979). Motivation and preaching. DiPlacido, P. (1976). Employee motivation. Columbus: Ohio Distributive Education Materials Lab. Fargus, P. (2000). Measuring and improving employee motivation. London: Financial Times Prentice Hall. Gawel, J. (1997). Herzberg's theory of motivation and Maslow's hierarchy of needs. [Washington, DC]: [ERIC Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation]. Gruneberg, M. (1979). Understanding job satisfaction. New York: Wiley. Hackman, J., Oldham, G. (1976). Motivation through the design of work: test of a theory. Organizational Behavior And Human Performance, 16(2), 250-279. doi:10.1016/0030-5073(76)90016-7 Hackman, J., Oldham, G., Janson, R., Purdy, K. (1975). A New Strategy for Job Enrichment. CaliforniaManagement Review, 17(4), 57-71. doi:10.2307/41164610 Harris, R., Hackman, J., Oldham, G. (1981). Work Redesign. Industrial And Labor Relations Review, 34(4), 629. doi:10.2307/2522500 Kapoor, P. (2005). Book Review: Dealing With The Employee From Hell (A Guide To Coaching and Motivation). Asia-Pacific Journal OfManagement Research And Innovation, 1(2), 161-162. doi:10.1177/097324700500100218 Korzynski, P. (2013). Employee motivation in new working environment. International Journal Of Academic Research, 5(5), 184-188. doi:10.7813/2075-4124.2013/5-5/b.28 Mok, V., Yeung, G. (2005). Employee motivation, external orientation and the technical efficiency of foreign-financed firms in China: a stochastic frontier analysis. Manage. Decis. Econ., 26(3), 175-190. doi:10.1002/mde.1203 Oldham, G., Hackman, J. (1981). Relationships Between Organizational Structure and Employee Reactions: Comparing Alternative Frameworks. Administrative Science Quarterly, 26(1), 66. doi:10.2307/2392600 Thomas, K. (2009). Intrinsic motivation at work. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers. Walsh, T. (1968). Maslow's theory of motivation: a method for testing the constructs. Whiteley, P. (2002). Motivation. Oxford, U.K.: Capstone Pub.

A Stranger Is Watching Essays - A Stranger Is Watching, Literature

A Stranger is Watching A Stranger is Watching is a terrific book. I enjoyed reading this book very much. The non-stop action kept me reading for hours. One of the best features of the book is how it was written.The point of view changes every chapter.For example Chapter 1 is written in the point of view of the infamous Foxy character.Chapter 2 is written in the point if view of our protagonist, Steve; and so on.I also liked how the author built the relationship of the characters up,so you care about what happens to them and feel like you're going through what they are going through.For instance,the author tells us of Steve's wife's death.We find out that Steve's son, Neil was never the same after this tragedy.When a new women,Sharon comes into Steve's life,Neil rejects her.Neil thinks that if Sharon and his father get married ,his father will send him away.When Neil and Sharon are held hostage together, Neil's feelings for Sharon change;he begins to see her as a nice person and a motherlike figure.I felt the author built this relationship up well so that the story would have a happy ending. I also like how the author made the character traits of the protagonist completely conflict with the antagonist.The protagonist,Steve is a successful man with a family and no problems;at least in the mind of the antagonist.The antagonist has problems with females,a career he feels is going nowhere,and a lack of good friends.throughout the story we find out that the antagonist is very jealous of the protagonist's lifeand that's why he indirectly targets him.This contrast was an addition to the already excitng plot of the story.. In my opinion the best part of "A Stranger is Watching"is the end,chapter 52.this chapter contains one of the greatest climaxes I ever read.The chapter begins at a frantic moment.All of the characters lives are at risk because Foxy's bomb is about to go off.After a fight with Foxy,Steve manages to release Sharon and Neil.At the same time Ronald Thompson(a juvenile convicted if murder)is about to be executed for the murder of Steve's wife,Nina.A few chapters earlier we find out that Nina is Foxy's victim but he got off clean with it. Steve races out of Grand Central Station (where the bomb is going to go off)with Sharon and Neil.At this point the author stops her narrative and begins with the time eleven forty-two,twelve minutes after the bomb goes off,at this point we don't know what happened to our characters.In this next paragraph we are informed that Steve,Neil ,and Sharon get away while Foxy dies from his own bomb.We also find out that Ronald Thompson is saved from his ex! ecution and released from prison. I enjoyed this part of the story so much because it was the point of the highest excitement. Every event that took place in the story built up to this major event.All excitement in the story was covered at this point.I feel the climax is the best part of every story,and should be.This was definitely one of the best books I have ever read.

Fred Uhlmans Reunion essays

Fred Uhlman's Reunion essays The weak individual is intimidated by the political movements of his age; the strong individual rises above political movements and remains true to himself. How is this shown to be the case in Fred Uhlmans Reunion? It is always more difficult to fight against faith than against knowledge. This quote by Hitler demonstrates how people that stay true to themselves and their beliefs are a lot harder to deceive then those who just rely on knowledge. Hans Father is a great example of a strong individual who is not easily fooled. In comparison a good example of a weak individual would be Konradin who is very much intimidated by the Nazi Party and their views. Hans father is one character in this book that was never intimidated by the political movements as he had fought for Germany in WW1 and felt he had earned his place in society. When the Zionist came to collect money for Israel, Hans Father became outraged and explained I should favor the complete absorption of Jews by the Germans if I could be convinced it would be of lasting profit to Germany. Hans Father demonstrates that he is staying true to what he believes in which is his Country. Konradin is an example of a weak individual, which is apprehensive to the Nazi Party. Even though Hans is his best friend, when it comes to exposing his friendship to the rest of society, especially his parents he is very hesitant, as they despise Jews. I didn't dare talk to you... I didn't want to hurt you... you have no right to reapproach me, when Konradin says this it just that he is afraid of what would happen if he showed he was friends with a Jew. Even though a best friend is someone you should be happy to show-off, Konradin isnt, showing that he is afraid of the current political situation. In contrast Hans father when in the presence of Konradin changed into a caricature of his true self...

Fundamentals of Macroeconomics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Fundamentals of Macroeconomics - Essay Example GDP is mainly applied in determining the stability of a country’s economy. Calculations of gross domestic product are commonly done using the expenditure method, which adds total consumption, investment, government spending and net exports (Dolan, 2010). Real gross domestic product refers to gross domestic product evaluated based on the prevailing market prices in a given year. Real GDP can also be regarded as inflation corrected gross domestic product. Real GDP has the capability to indicate changes in the price level with a high accuracy compared to nominal gross domestic product (Dolan, 2010). This refers to the gross domestic product figure that has not received any adjustments on inflation. It is also the value of services as well as goods produced in a given country after the final stage of production. Increased purchase of groceries by households is a clear indicator of their improved economic status. This fact enhances growth of existing businesses as well as the emergence of new investments. In such a situation, the government benefits from increased tax collections obtained from value added tax and taxation from investments (Dolan, 2010). This refers to the reduction of the number of people under employment in a given country. The implications of undertaking such a step include negative impacts on the government, households, and businesses. Massive layoff of employees means that a large number of people within a country will have a reduced purchasing power. In such situations, household living standards will come down; businesses will close down due to low purchases, and government’s revenue collection will go down. Economically stable citizens within a country comprise a key pillar of a country’s economy (Dolan, 2010). Revenues generated from taxation are the principal financers of the government budget. Therefore, a decrease in taxes implies that the government will strain in meeting its expenditures. On the other

What is the purpose of government in the United States Essay

What is the purpose of government in the United States - Essay Example Seeking to explore the purpose of the US government with respect to the roles that it plays in the modern 21st century, the following will argue that there are many roles for the government of the United States. These include the promotion and continuation of democratic governance, economic development, the provision of social services, promoting justice and securing the nation from outside threat. All of the functions are inherent to the purpose of the United States. We now turn to an exploration of the government of the United States of America and its role as the torchbearer of democracy (Almond et al, 101-102). . One of the most important functions of the government of the United States is the promotion of liberal democracy. In a liberal democratic society, power rests with the people. Liberal democracy can be characterized by free and fair elections, universal suffrage and a plural society in which power is transferred through peaceful political means. Accordingly, stability in much of the world is defined as the establishment of both democracy and democratic rules of governance. By giving everyone a voice at the ballot, the argument follows that the political regime which gains power will be perceived as being legitimate and the result will be political stability. Accordingly, the role of the United States government is to ensure that political power is transferred through peaceful means and that political contiguity is maintained through the democratic system. As an entrenched cultural value of the United States, the promotion of liberal democracy is an important task for the government o f the United States. The promotion of economic development is another responsibility for the government of the United States. As a society with a capitalist economic system, the government of the United manages the economic system while understanding the importance of free

Impacts of Land Use on the Tinson Pen

Impacts of Land Use on the Tinson Pen The transport sector in Jamaica may be considered to include road, rail, air and maritime transportation (See Figure 1 Appendix 6). The Ministry of Housing, Transport, Water and Works (MHTWW) has prepared a draft National Transport Policy to provide a framework for the future development of the sector. As it pertains to air transportation, Jamaicas air transport system comprises an international system and a domestic system. The three (3) main entities in the air transport sector are the Aviation Service Providers such as airports, air traffic services, aircraft maintenance organizations, airlines and AEROTEL; Users of air transport, such as passengers and shippers, and the Regulator, the Jamaica Civil Aviation Authority (JCAA). The service providers and regulator facilitate air transportation in Jamaica in a manner that conforms with international best practices stipulated by the United Nations body responsible for civil aviation, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO ). The 1974 enactment of the Airports Authority Act transferred to the Airports Authority of Jamaica (AAJ), responsibilities for the ownership, management and commercial functions of the two (2) international airports Norman Manley International Airport (NMIA) and the Sangster International Airport (SIA). In 1997, AAJs responsibility was expanded to incorporate the four (4) active domestic aerodromes Boscobel, Ken Jones, Negril and the Tinson Pen. One of the primary responsibilities of the AAJ is to oversee the expansion and modernization of facilities at the islands international and domestic aerodromes. Special emphasis will be placed on Tinson Pen aerodrome for the purpose of this research. Essentially the critical issue to be addressed is the impact that existing and proposed land uses have had on the operations of the Tinson Pen aerodrome. The rational for selecting the Tinson Pen aerodrome is contingent upon the fact that the Tinson Aerodrome represents a critical support system in Jamaicas domestic air transportation system. Located on Marcus Garvey Drive Kingston, Tinson Pen Aerodrome is used for general aviation, commuter and charter flights courier services and flight training and aircraft maintenance services. It currently provides these services from operators including International Airlink, Wings Jamaica Limited, Caribbean Aviation Centre, Island Aviation Service, Air Speed Limited, Strescon and Tara Courier. It is the largest of the countrys four domestic aerodrome; It is adjacent to the Kingston Wharves, one of the largest trans-shipment port in the English-speaking Ca ribbean and a major highway which has improved regional connectivity. It is a vital commercial link between Kingston and Montego Bay. Whether it is by commercial or general aviation, access to aviation plays a key role in the conduct of daily business throughout the country. Close proximity to airports increases opportunities for corporations and industries doing business in Kingston and St Andrew by permitting safe, efficient, and cost-effective travel for business passengers and freight. In light of Jamaicas geographic location, the island is vulnerable to Hurricanes. The first facilities to become incapacitated are the two international airports due to their close proximity to the sea. However Norman Manley International has a greater vulnerability because it is located on a peninsula which continues to be severely inundated subsequent to the passage of hurricanes. However the Tinson Pen aerodrome has survived all of the major disasters and as a result has emerged as a critical b ack up facility to the Norman Manley International Airport. This manifested itself after hurricane Ivan when relief supplies had to be flown out of Tinson Pen because the Palisadoes was impassable. Despite greater emphasis from the government being placed on international air transportation the importance of revitalizing domestic air transportation has also been on the Governments agenda. According to the National Transport Policy Final Draft the strategic objectives outline the need to promote an efficient and productive aviation industry which will compete domestically and internationally and facilitate the development and commercialisation of the domestic aerodromes. Essentially, if Jamaica is to reinvigorate domestic air travel special attention must be directed to the understanding the impact that land use has on our aerodromes operation, how to assess these impacts and identify various mitigation strategies to protect our aerodromes. Tinson Pen has to contend with a myriad of developments occurring adjacent to the Kingston Waterfront including the Port expansion, Highway 2000, Marcus Garvey Road Improvements, Factories Corporation of Jamaica, communities such as Greenwich Farm, Union Gardens and Majestic Gardens. In understanding the impacts that these and other land uses have on the Tinson Pen aerodrome, creates the opportunity for future development initiatives in the domestic air transportation to follow a rational planning process to ensure aerodrome are an efficient, functional and integrated part of the air transportation system. Problem Statement The underlying issue as it relates to the Tinson Pen aerodrome is in relation to the possible occurrence of incompatible land use within the airport environs that may have a negative impact on the airports operations with regards to airport noise, public safety, and airspace protection Research Goal To examine the need for land use planning for existing land use and potential developments within the study area related to the Tinson Pen aerodrome. The proposition will identify and examine current and future incompatible land uses within the airport environs, which may conflict with the proposed airports operations in relation to noise, public safety and airspace protection. Research Objectives To determine the Tinson Pen airport locality boundaries To examine the importance of domestic aerodromes as an integrated part of the air transportation system To identify the existing land use within the airport locality To examine current land usage within the study area and any proposed developments by private, government or NGOs and what impact they may have on the proposed airports operations. To identify land use control methods that will ensure the protection of the airports operations and the reciprocal protection of land use within the airports locality. To assess the applicability of land use control measures that minimize the publics exposure to excessive noise and safety hazards within areas around the Tinson Pen Aerodrome. To examine the roles and responsibilities of the state, local governments, private sector organizations and the local community in land use compatibility planning and implementation. To identify and examine the effectiveness of current local and international regulations, legislation and polices related to airport operations and land use compatibility planning. Research Questions What is the importance of the Tinson Pen aerodrome to Jamaicas Air Transportation system? What is the current land usage within the study area and any proposed developments by private, government or NGOs and how will they impact on the airports operations? How compatible are the adjacent development/land use compatible with aviation related activities? To what extent can land use within the airport locality be reserved for compatible uses? What are the roles and responsibilities of the state, local governments, private sector organizations and the local community and to what extent are they exercised in land use compatibility planning and implementation for airports in Jamaica? Is there any legislation and regulations related to airport operations and land use compatibility planning and how important is it to have this legal framework established? How effective can zoning ordinances/regulations facilitate airport operations LITERATURE REVIEW INTRODUCTION Jamaicas air transportation infrastructure consists of the two international airports; Norman Manley and Sangster International along with four domestic aerodromes which are Tinson Pen, Boscobel, Ken Jones and Negril. From a macro-economic perspective both international airports are critical to Jamaica economic viability. Access to aviation is essential to the business traveler, an aid to the farmer, and an unparalleled convenience to the tourist. As it relates to domestic aerodromes, The degree to which our domestic aerodromes have been integrated into the transport system is questionable and may be linked to the unfortunate reality that the development of the transportation system has been taking place in the absence of a comprehensive, well articulated National Transport Policy that should guide its overall development; and ensure that specific transportation initiatives such as the Tinson pen aerodrome are integrated into an overall vision for economic and social development. The critical issue faced by airports both domestic and international airports across the world is the origination of land use conflicts within airport locality because of inadequate zoning and land use planning FAA Airports Division (1999). According to Federal Aviation Administration (1998) in the article â€Å"Airport Compatible Land Use† it outlined the fact that in the United States (USA) this failure to protect the airport environs has led to the loss of many airports from their national inventory of landing facilities. In the past five years, an average of over 60 public-use landing facilities has been lost every year. The article highlighted the fact that the calls to close the airports identified zoning laws or the lack thereof as a major contributor. This problem by extension has manifested itself at the Tinson Pen aerodrome. In particular, the problems include the port expansion, road developments, encroachment of communities to name a few. This literature review see ks give context to the issues faced at the Tinson Pen aerodrome by sourcing literature which examine the importance of domestic aerodromes in the air transport system, show all the critical processes and components of Land use planning for airports, examine the impact that land use conflicts have on aerodrome operation, examine the roles and responsibilities of the state, local governments, private sector organizations and the local community in land use compatibility planning and implementation and how effective local and international regulations, legislation and polices are to airport operations and land use compatibility planning. Determination of Airport Locality Boundaries According to the Virginia Department of Aviation (2006), to implement effective land use planning and control measures around airports, it is necessary to identify specific planning boundaries. These boundaries will define the airport environs for land-use planning purposes. It highlighted the fact that it is important for airport owners, elected officials, land-use planners and developers to understand the components of an effective compatible airport land-use plan. A comprehensive plan will incorporate federal and state airport design criteria, safety of flight requirements and land use provisions unique to the community. The Department of Aviation made reference to the need to accurately represent airport boundaries, recommending that Safety Zones, Standard Traffic Patterns, Overflight Areas, Noise Contours and FAR Part 77 height restriction criteria be considered by land-use planners when developing zoning ordinances, airport overlay districts and comprehensive land-use plans for their community. A comprehensive plan for airport-compatible land-uses should include an area large enough to consider all these factors. Airport Master Plan The Airport Master Plan is a document that details the long-term development of an airport. The plan includes the information, analyses, and resulting decisions and policies guiding the future development of an airport, typically over a 20-year planning period. To meet future demands, the need for facilities on the public side and airfield side of an airport must be detailed in advance, based on an established approach for determining need and possible impacts to the community, with a plan for implementation and funding FAA (1998). Updates to the original master plan are required to document significant changes in policies or development needs. Through the preparation of a master plan, justification can be established, alternatives reviewed, public comment received, and a policy set for the future so that subsequent land use decisions can be compared against an established plan. Essential elements of the airport master plan are outlined in FAA Advisory Circular (AC) 150/5070-6, Airport Master Plans, (1985). Although each airport and community that an airport serves are unique, there are standard elements of any airport master planning process. These elements include the following: Inventory of Existing Facilities and Airspace This initial step in the airport master planning process identifies and establishes a database of existing airport facilities, and reviews information about the airport service area, the surrounding communities, and the existing airspace and navigational aids. An historical review of aeronautical activity, development of facilities, and community issues is also included. This inventory of facilities and services establishes a base against which to compare future development. Forecasts of Anticipated Growth in Activity Information is collated on the numbers of operations (take-offs and landings), passengers, based aircraft, and cargo tonnage moved; socioeconomic data; national trends affecting airport growth; and other information are collected for consideration in preparing aviation demand forecasts. The forecast years are typically in five-year increments with a planning horizon of 20 years. The forecasts needed include enplanements, local and itinerant operations, based aircraft, cargo and mail tonnage, and peak-hour characteristics for passengers and operations. Based on the type of airport being studied, forecasts of international and domestic passengers and projections of air carrier and commuter operations may also be required. Demand/Capacity Analysis The capacity of various airport facilities discussed in the facility inventory is compared to the future demand for these facilities as supported by the aviation demand forecasts. Airside capacity is determined and compared with aircraft demand forecasts to determine the need for and timing of new runways, runway extensions, taxiways, or additional navigational aids that will increase capacity. Airspace capacity is also examined based on projected aircraft fleet mix, the proposed runway configuration, the locations of other airports in the area, and the types of operations (instrument approaches and visual approaches). Terminal area capacity needs are determined for terminal areas and gates, curbside, and public and employee automobile parking. Surface access capacity for surface roads into and out of the airport, including terminal areas, cargo areas, and general aviation facilities, must be reviewed to determine what future capacity is available in the roadway system. Demand for other facilities on the airport, such as fuel farms, cargo areas, maintenance areas, and general aviation facilities is also determined. Lastly, revenue-producing non-aviation uses, such as industrial parks, and hotels, may also be reviewed. The need for any of these facilities is balanced against the availability of land to meet future airport needs and consideration of what is the highest and best use of available land. In addition, the timing of the improvements must be considered based on need and available funding. Alternatives Because options frequently exist as to how to serve the future needs of an airports service area, an analysis of alternatives that can meet the projected growth while achieving community goals is conducted as a critical part of the master planning process. The alternatives analysis results in a recommendation for the most reasonable development approach that maintains an acceptable mix of airport-related land uses, considers airspace and environmental concerns, and remains responsive to community concerns. Environmental Analysis Existing and potential environmental impacts, and any possible mitigation of adverse environmental impacts, must be considered during the master planning process. This portion of the master plan, while not to the detail required in an environmental assessment or environmental impact statement as outlined by the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), should provide an overview of environmental issues and potential mitigation to be considered with the implementation of the selected airport development plan. Plan Implementation A schedule for development and review of available funding is required-with the selection of a preferred alternative for airport development. The financial feasibility of the implementation of the master plan development must be considered, including both capital and ongoing operating costs. Five-, 10-, and 20-year development plans are provided with a more Page V-5 V. Airport and Local Land Use Planning Processes detailed look at the shorter-term (five-year) projects to be included in the airport capital improvement program. Airport Layout Plan According to the California Airport Land Use Planning Handbook (2002) a compatibility plan should contain a drawing showing the locations of existing and proposed airport runways, runway protection zones, property boundaries, and any other features which have implications for land use compatibility as aforementioned. However it also identifies the fact that these drawing may be a formal airport layout plan prepared by the airport proprietor as part of an airport master plan or other planning process and alternatively, it can be a more simplified drawing emphasizing the airports fundamental features. This information is a critical component to be retrofitted to this research. It is predicated upon the fact that current airport layout plan is not available for the Tinson Pen aerodrome. This happens as a result of the airport proprietor not keeping it current and is particularly common for small, privately owned facilities where no layout plan may have ever been prepared. Adopted Master Plan Exists The California Department of Transportation Division of Aeronautics generally does not become involved when a long-range master plan has been adopted by the agency owning the airport and the plan is reasonably current. If the master plan is old, the layout plan contained in it may need to be updated to reflecting recent construction. Such updates should then be submitted to the Division of Aeronautics for approval. Another situation which sometimes arises is that an airport master planning process is being conducted concurrently with the preparation or updating of a compatibility plan. If the master plan is expected to propose airport development which could have airport compatibility implications, it may be advantageous for the compatibility plan to include policies which take into account the anticipated changes. However, the compatibility plan still needs to be based upon the master plan which is in effect. Airport Layout Plan Available When a master plan does not exist or was never adopted by the airport owner, but an airport layout plan is available, the Division of Aeronautics is responsible for reviewing the plan and any associated activity projections for currency and suitability for airport land use planning purposes. The Division of Aeronautics may suggest modifications to the plan if deemed necessary. No Airport Plan Exists When no plan exists, the commission typically will need to prepare a simplified or diagrammatic airport layout drawing on which to base its land use compatibility plan. Such drawings need not be detailed. The only components essential to show are ones which may have off-airport compatibility implications—specifically: runways, runway protection zones, airport property lines and traffic patterns. Also, because lack of an airport layout plan mostly occurs only with regard to low-activity, often privately owned, airports for which few changes are anticipated, the plan merely needs to reflect the existing conditions. Typical Airport Traffic pattern Specific areas to be considered at and around airports are defined by two major Federal Aviation Administration criteria: Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) Part 77 Objects Affecting Navigable Airspace and FAA Advisory Circular 150/5300-13 Airport Design Standards. These two primary documents provide the form the basis for delineating the limits of the environs affected by aircraft near airports. FAR Part 77 establishes standards for determining which structures pose potential obstructions to air navigation. It does this by establishing standards for defining obstructions to navigable airspace. These airspace areas are referred to as Imaginary Surfaces. Objects affected include existing or proposed objects of natural growth, terrain, or permanent or temporary construction including equipment that is permanent or temporary in character. The imaginary surfaces outlined in FAR Part 77 include Primary Surface Transitional Surface Horizontal Surface Conical Surface Approach Surface FAR Part 77 clearly defines these surfaces as follows: Primary Surface: The primary surface is longitudinally centered on a runway. When the runway has a specially prepared hard surface, the primary surface extends 200 feet beyond each end of that runway. When the runway has no specially prepared hard surface, or planned hard surface, the primary surface terminates at each end of the runway. The width of a primary surface ranges from 250 feet to 1,000 feet depending on the existing or planned approach and runway type (i.e., visual, non precision, or precision). Transitional Surface: Transitional surfaces extend outward and upward at right angles to the runway centerline and are extended at a slope of seven (7) feet horizontally for each foot vertically (7:1) from the sides of the primary and approach surfaces. The transitional surfaces extend to where they intercept the horizontal surface at a height of 150 feet above the runway elevation. For precision approach surfaces, which project through and beyond the limits of the conical surface, the transitional surface also extends a distance of 5,000 feet measured horizontally from the edge of the approach surface and at right angles to the runway centerline. depict the dimensional requirements of the transitional surface. Horizontal Surface: The horizontal surface is a horizontal plane located 150 feet above the established airport elevation, covering an area from the transitional surface to the conical surface. The perimeter is constructed by swinging arcs from the center of each end of the primary surface and connecting the adjacent arcs by lines tangent to those areas. The radius of each arc is 5,000 feet for all runway ends designated as utility or visual, or 10,000 feet for all other runway ends. Conical Surface: The conical surface is a surface extending upward and outward from the periphery of the horizontal surface at a slope of one foot for every 20 feet (20:1) for a horizontal distance of 4,000 feet. Approach Surface: Longitudinally centered on the extended runway centerline, the approach surface extends outward and upward from the end of the primary surface. An approach surface is applied to each end of each runway based upon the type of approach. The approach slope of a runway is a ratio of 20:1, 34:1, or 50:1, depending on the sophistication of the approach. The length of the approach surface varies, ranging from 5,000 feet to 50,000 feet. The inner edge of the approach surface is the same width as the primary surface and expands uniformly to a width ranging from 1,250 feet to 16,000 feet depending on the type of runway and approach. Compatible Land Uses According to the Wisconsin Department of Aviation (2002), the types of airport compatible land uses depend on the location and size of the airport, as well as the type and volume of aircraft using the facility. Most commercial industrial uses, especially those associated with the airport, are good neighbors. Land uses where the airport creates the demand, such as motels, restaurants, warehouses, shipping agencies, aircraft related industries, as well as industries that benefit from access to an airport, are compatible land uses. At airport locations where there is not now a demand for these uses near the airport, communities may find it desirable to promote the use of this land for commercial or industrial use through a program of aids and incentives. Buildings and structures must not obstruct the aerial approaches to the airport, interfere with aircraft radio communications, or affect a pilots vision due to glare or bright lights. Motels, restaurants and office buildings should also be soundproofed to make them more comfortable and attractive to clientele and employees. Other uses compatible with airports are large parks, conservatory areas and other open spaces. These land uses are created for public purposes and are opportunities for local government bodies to provide a compatible land use. Forestry services, landscape services, game preserves and some extractive industries such as mining and excavation are also land uses considered compatible with airports. Agriculture is another land use that is compatible with airport operations. While some types of animal farming are sensitive to aircraft noise, most agricultural uses are not adversely affected by airport operations. Agricultural land also allows the owner of property near the airport to make an efficient use of the land while benefiting the community in terms of airport protection. Incompatible Land Uses Incompatible airport land uses include residential development, schools, community centers, libraries, hospitals, religious service buildings, and tall structures. Residential housing is the most prevalent urban land use, and also the use most incompatible with aircraft operations. As residential developments fill the vacant or former agricultural land between the urban settlement and the airport, the possibility of the residential developments restricting the airports potential increases. Residential growth restricts the airport by acquiring the land needed for expansion and by removing the buffer between the airport and residential neighborhoods. This buffer is important because it diminishes the impact of aircraft noise and lessens the possibility of an airplane accident in the residential neighborhood. As residential uses expand into this area around the airport, homeowners inevitably express concerns regarding safety and noise. Wisconsin experienced a strong population growth du ring the 1990s, gaining almost 400,000 new residents. Metropolitan counties showed the most rapid growth. During a period of strong or rapid growth, residential uses have often developed too close to an airport. However, with careful planning there is no reason for the continued encroachment on the airport by this type of incompatible land use. Residential neighborhoods, schools, churches and other similar land uses are the most susceptible to the side effects of aircraft operations. It is neither in the interest of the homeowner nor the community to locate these uses where they will be subject to the greatest impact of aircraft takeoffs and landings. It is clearly in the public interest that action should be taken to prevent this land use conflict. Because this research seeks to highlight the impacts that land use have on the operations of the Tinson Pen, the aim is to identify the reciprocal effect of the aerodrome. Therefore the focus for the issue regarding residential communities locating near airports is not the associated noise impact on the community but the reciprocation of complaints which may apply pressure for an airports closure. Other examples of incompatible land uses around airports include wetland mitigation, retention ponds, and land fills. These may appear to be good land uses around an airport but are re stricted or could possibly be associated with wildlife hazards. Caution should also be exercised with wildlife preserves located near airports due to the possible wildlife hazards associated with them. The sound made by aircraft is a primary consideration in the determination of compatible land uses. Technical improvements in aircraft engines, flight paths that detour around populated areas, and changes in landing and takeoff procedures have continued to reduce the impact of aircraft noise. Aircraft will always create a level of noise that will make some land uses in the proximity of the airport incompatible. Compatibility Concerns The California Airport Land use compatibility handbook (2002) explained that airport land use compatibility concerns fall under two broad headings identified in state law: noise and safety. However, for the purposes of formulating airport land use compatibility policies and criteria, further divided these concerns into four categories. These categories are noise, safety, overflight and airspace protection. The ICAO Environmental controls and land use (2001) highlighted the fact that there are basic categories of concern when discussing compatible land uses. The following outlines the top priority items that need to be addressed as part of a land use compatibility program. Some factors to consider include the density of developments and the height of structures. Other conditions to consider when planning for safe airport environs include distracting lights, reflective glare, smoke, dust, induced fog, electronic interference, and bird attractants. These conditions can distract the pilot and interfere with their safe approach and departure from an airport. Land uses that can lead to, or contribute to, these conditions should be discouraged in the airport environs. In particular, proposed development should not be permitted beneath the approach surface of a runway if that development generates any of the potentially hazardous conditions described in the following paragraphs. This is by no means an inclusive list, however, it illustrates the diverse types of land uses that a planner needs to be cognizant of when developing an airport land use plan. Density Development A primary means of limiting the risks of damage or injury to persons or property on the ground due to near-airport aircraft accidents is to limit the density of land use development in these areas. The question of where to set these limits is dependent upon both the probability of an accident and the degree of risk that the community finds acceptable. From the previous sections, it is clear that accident probabilities increase with closer proximity to runway ends both because of greater concentration of aircraft over that area and because aircraft are flying at low altitude. The areas where aircraft regularly fly less than 500 feet above the ground are regarded as the most critical. Low flight altitudes present the greatest risks because they offer pilots less opportunity to recover from unexpected occurrences. Because aircraft are turning to follow the traffic pattern, this area encompasses more than just the area beneath the FAR Part 77 approach surface. Turns mostly take place bet ween 2,000 and 5,000 feet from the runway end, dependi Impacts of Land Use on the Tinson Pen Impacts of Land Use on the Tinson Pen The transport sector in Jamaica may be considered to include road, rail, air and maritime transportation (See Figure 1 Appendix 6). The Ministry of Housing, Transport, Water and Works (MHTWW) has prepared a draft National Transport Policy to provide a framework for the future development of the sector. As it pertains to air transportation, Jamaicas air transport system comprises an international system and a domestic system. The three (3) main entities in the air transport sector are the Aviation Service Providers such as airports, air traffic services, aircraft maintenance organizations, airlines and AEROTEL; Users of air transport, such as passengers and shippers, and the Regulator, the Jamaica Civil Aviation Authority (JCAA). The service providers and regulator facilitate air transportation in Jamaica in a manner that conforms with international best practices stipulated by the United Nations body responsible for civil aviation, the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO ). The 1974 enactment of the Airports Authority Act transferred to the Airports Authority of Jamaica (AAJ), responsibilities for the ownership, management and commercial functions of the two (2) international airports Norman Manley International Airport (NMIA) and the Sangster International Airport (SIA). In 1997, AAJs responsibility was expanded to incorporate the four (4) active domestic aerodromes Boscobel, Ken Jones, Negril and the Tinson Pen. One of the primary responsibilities of the AAJ is to oversee the expansion and modernization of facilities at the islands international and domestic aerodromes. Special emphasis will be placed on Tinson Pen aerodrome for the purpose of this research. Essentially the critical issue to be addressed is the impact that existing and proposed land uses have had on the operations of the Tinson Pen aerodrome. The rational for selecting the Tinson Pen aerodrome is contingent upon the fact that the Tinson Aerodrome represents a critical support system in Jamaicas domestic air transportation system. Located on Marcus Garvey Drive Kingston, Tinson Pen Aerodrome is used for general aviation, commuter and charter flights courier services and flight training and aircraft maintenance services. It currently provides these services from operators including International Airlink, Wings Jamaica Limited, Caribbean Aviation Centre, Island Aviation Service, Air Speed Limited, Strescon and Tara Courier. It is the largest of the countrys four domestic aerodrome; It is adjacent to the Kingston Wharves, one of the largest trans-shipment port in the English-speaking Ca ribbean and a major highway which has improved regional connectivity. It is a vital commercial link between Kingston and Montego Bay. Whether it is by commercial or general aviation, access to aviation plays a key role in the conduct of daily business throughout the country. Close proximity to airports increases opportunities for corporations and industries doing business in Kingston and St Andrew by permitting safe, efficient, and cost-effective travel for business passengers and freight. In light of Jamaicas geographic location, the island is vulnerable to Hurricanes. The first facilities to become incapacitated are the two international airports due to their close proximity to the sea. However Norman Manley International has a greater vulnerability because it is located on a peninsula which continues to be severely inundated subsequent to the passage of hurricanes. However the Tinson Pen aerodrome has survived all of the major disasters and as a result has emerged as a critical b ack up facility to the Norman Manley International Airport. This manifested itself after hurricane Ivan when relief supplies had to be flown out of Tinson Pen because the Palisadoes was impassable. Despite greater emphasis from the government being placed on international air transportation the importance of revitalizing domestic air transportation has also been on the Governments agenda. According to the National Transport Policy Final Draft the strategic objectives outline the need to promote an efficient and productive aviation industry which will compete domestically and internationally and facilitate the development and commercialisation of the domestic aerodromes. Essentially, if Jamaica is to reinvigorate domestic air travel special attention must be directed to the understanding the impact that land use has on our aerodromes operation, how to assess these impacts and identify various mitigation strategies to protect our aerodromes. Tinson Pen has to contend with a myriad of developments occurring adjacent to the Kingston Waterfront including the Port expansion, Highway 2000, Marcus Garvey Road Improvements, Factories Corporation of Jamaica, communities such as Greenwich Farm, Union Gardens and Majestic Gardens. In understanding the impacts that these and other land uses have on the Tinson Pen aerodrome, creates the opportunity for future development initiatives in the domestic air transportation to follow a rational planning process to ensure aerodrome are an efficient, functional and integrated part of the air transportation system. Problem Statement The underlying issue as it relates to the Tinson Pen aerodrome is in relation to the possible occurrence of incompatible land use within the airport environs that may have a negative impact on the airports operations with regards to airport noise, public safety, and airspace protection Research Goal To examine the need for land use planning for existing land use and potential developments within the study area related to the Tinson Pen aerodrome. The proposition will identify and examine current and future incompatible land uses within the airport environs, which may conflict with the proposed airports operations in relation to noise, public safety and airspace protection. Research Objectives To determine the Tinson Pen airport locality boundaries To examine the importance of domestic aerodromes as an integrated part of the air transportation system To identify the existing land use within the airport locality To examine current land usage within the study area and any proposed developments by private, government or NGOs and what impact they may have on the proposed airports operations. To identify land use control methods that will ensure the protection of the airports operations and the reciprocal protection of land use within the airports locality. To assess the applicability of land use control measures that minimize the publics exposure to excessive noise and safety hazards within areas around the Tinson Pen Aerodrome. To examine the roles and responsibilities of the state, local governments, private sector organizations and the local community in land use compatibility planning and implementation. To identify and examine the effectiveness of current local and international regulations, legislation and polices related to airport operations and land use compatibility planning. Research Questions What is the importance of the Tinson Pen aerodrome to Jamaicas Air Transportation system? What is the current land usage within the study area and any proposed developments by private, government or NGOs and how will they impact on the airports operations? How compatible are the adjacent development/land use compatible with aviation related activities? To what extent can land use within the airport locality be reserved for compatible uses? What are the roles and responsibilities of the state, local governments, private sector organizations and the local community and to what extent are they exercised in land use compatibility planning and implementation for airports in Jamaica? Is there any legislation and regulations related to airport operations and land use compatibility planning and how important is it to have this legal framework established? How effective can zoning ordinances/regulations facilitate airport operations LITERATURE REVIEW INTRODUCTION Jamaicas air transportation infrastructure consists of the two international airports; Norman Manley and Sangster International along with four domestic aerodromes which are Tinson Pen, Boscobel, Ken Jones and Negril. From a macro-economic perspective both international airports are critical to Jamaica economic viability. Access to aviation is essential to the business traveler, an aid to the farmer, and an unparalleled convenience to the tourist. As it relates to domestic aerodromes, The degree to which our domestic aerodromes have been integrated into the transport system is questionable and may be linked to the unfortunate reality that the development of the transportation system has been taking place in the absence of a comprehensive, well articulated National Transport Policy that should guide its overall development; and ensure that specific transportation initiatives such as the Tinson pen aerodrome are integrated into an overall vision for economic and social development. The critical issue faced by airports both domestic and international airports across the world is the origination of land use conflicts within airport locality because of inadequate zoning and land use planning FAA Airports Division (1999). According to Federal Aviation Administration (1998) in the article â€Å"Airport Compatible Land Use† it outlined the fact that in the United States (USA) this failure to protect the airport environs has led to the loss of many airports from their national inventory of landing facilities. In the past five years, an average of over 60 public-use landing facilities has been lost every year. The article highlighted the fact that the calls to close the airports identified zoning laws or the lack thereof as a major contributor. This problem by extension has manifested itself at the Tinson Pen aerodrome. In particular, the problems include the port expansion, road developments, encroachment of communities to name a few. This literature review see ks give context to the issues faced at the Tinson Pen aerodrome by sourcing literature which examine the importance of domestic aerodromes in the air transport system, show all the critical processes and components of Land use planning for airports, examine the impact that land use conflicts have on aerodrome operation, examine the roles and responsibilities of the state, local governments, private sector organizations and the local community in land use compatibility planning and implementation and how effective local and international regulations, legislation and polices are to airport operations and land use compatibility planning. Determination of Airport Locality Boundaries According to the Virginia Department of Aviation (2006), to implement effective land use planning and control measures around airports, it is necessary to identify specific planning boundaries. These boundaries will define the airport environs for land-use planning purposes. It highlighted the fact that it is important for airport owners, elected officials, land-use planners and developers to understand the components of an effective compatible airport land-use plan. A comprehensive plan will incorporate federal and state airport design criteria, safety of flight requirements and land use provisions unique to the community. The Department of Aviation made reference to the need to accurately represent airport boundaries, recommending that Safety Zones, Standard Traffic Patterns, Overflight Areas, Noise Contours and FAR Part 77 height restriction criteria be considered by land-use planners when developing zoning ordinances, airport overlay districts and comprehensive land-use plans for their community. A comprehensive plan for airport-compatible land-uses should include an area large enough to consider all these factors. Airport Master Plan The Airport Master Plan is a document that details the long-term development of an airport. The plan includes the information, analyses, and resulting decisions and policies guiding the future development of an airport, typically over a 20-year planning period. To meet future demands, the need for facilities on the public side and airfield side of an airport must be detailed in advance, based on an established approach for determining need and possible impacts to the community, with a plan for implementation and funding FAA (1998). Updates to the original master plan are required to document significant changes in policies or development needs. Through the preparation of a master plan, justification can be established, alternatives reviewed, public comment received, and a policy set for the future so that subsequent land use decisions can be compared against an established plan. Essential elements of the airport master plan are outlined in FAA Advisory Circular (AC) 150/5070-6, Airport Master Plans, (1985). Although each airport and community that an airport serves are unique, there are standard elements of any airport master planning process. These elements include the following: Inventory of Existing Facilities and Airspace This initial step in the airport master planning process identifies and establishes a database of existing airport facilities, and reviews information about the airport service area, the surrounding communities, and the existing airspace and navigational aids. An historical review of aeronautical activity, development of facilities, and community issues is also included. This inventory of facilities and services establishes a base against which to compare future development. Forecasts of Anticipated Growth in Activity Information is collated on the numbers of operations (take-offs and landings), passengers, based aircraft, and cargo tonnage moved; socioeconomic data; national trends affecting airport growth; and other information are collected for consideration in preparing aviation demand forecasts. The forecast years are typically in five-year increments with a planning horizon of 20 years. The forecasts needed include enplanements, local and itinerant operations, based aircraft, cargo and mail tonnage, and peak-hour characteristics for passengers and operations. Based on the type of airport being studied, forecasts of international and domestic passengers and projections of air carrier and commuter operations may also be required. Demand/Capacity Analysis The capacity of various airport facilities discussed in the facility inventory is compared to the future demand for these facilities as supported by the aviation demand forecasts. Airside capacity is determined and compared with aircraft demand forecasts to determine the need for and timing of new runways, runway extensions, taxiways, or additional navigational aids that will increase capacity. Airspace capacity is also examined based on projected aircraft fleet mix, the proposed runway configuration, the locations of other airports in the area, and the types of operations (instrument approaches and visual approaches). Terminal area capacity needs are determined for terminal areas and gates, curbside, and public and employee automobile parking. Surface access capacity for surface roads into and out of the airport, including terminal areas, cargo areas, and general aviation facilities, must be reviewed to determine what future capacity is available in the roadway system. Demand for other facilities on the airport, such as fuel farms, cargo areas, maintenance areas, and general aviation facilities is also determined. Lastly, revenue-producing non-aviation uses, such as industrial parks, and hotels, may also be reviewed. The need for any of these facilities is balanced against the availability of land to meet future airport needs and consideration of what is the highest and best use of available land. In addition, the timing of the improvements must be considered based on need and available funding. Alternatives Because options frequently exist as to how to serve the future needs of an airports service area, an analysis of alternatives that can meet the projected growth while achieving community goals is conducted as a critical part of the master planning process. The alternatives analysis results in a recommendation for the most reasonable development approach that maintains an acceptable mix of airport-related land uses, considers airspace and environmental concerns, and remains responsive to community concerns. Environmental Analysis Existing and potential environmental impacts, and any possible mitigation of adverse environmental impacts, must be considered during the master planning process. This portion of the master plan, while not to the detail required in an environmental assessment or environmental impact statement as outlined by the National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), should provide an overview of environmental issues and potential mitigation to be considered with the implementation of the selected airport development plan. Plan Implementation A schedule for development and review of available funding is required-with the selection of a preferred alternative for airport development. The financial feasibility of the implementation of the master plan development must be considered, including both capital and ongoing operating costs. Five-, 10-, and 20-year development plans are provided with a more Page V-5 V. Airport and Local Land Use Planning Processes detailed look at the shorter-term (five-year) projects to be included in the airport capital improvement program. Airport Layout Plan According to the California Airport Land Use Planning Handbook (2002) a compatibility plan should contain a drawing showing the locations of existing and proposed airport runways, runway protection zones, property boundaries, and any other features which have implications for land use compatibility as aforementioned. However it also identifies the fact that these drawing may be a formal airport layout plan prepared by the airport proprietor as part of an airport master plan or other planning process and alternatively, it can be a more simplified drawing emphasizing the airports fundamental features. This information is a critical component to be retrofitted to this research. It is predicated upon the fact that current airport layout plan is not available for the Tinson Pen aerodrome. This happens as a result of the airport proprietor not keeping it current and is particularly common for small, privately owned facilities where no layout plan may have ever been prepared. Adopted Master Plan Exists The California Department of Transportation Division of Aeronautics generally does not become involved when a long-range master plan has been adopted by the agency owning the airport and the plan is reasonably current. If the master plan is old, the layout plan contained in it may need to be updated to reflecting recent construction. Such updates should then be submitted to the Division of Aeronautics for approval. Another situation which sometimes arises is that an airport master planning process is being conducted concurrently with the preparation or updating of a compatibility plan. If the master plan is expected to propose airport development which could have airport compatibility implications, it may be advantageous for the compatibility plan to include policies which take into account the anticipated changes. However, the compatibility plan still needs to be based upon the master plan which is in effect. Airport Layout Plan Available When a master plan does not exist or was never adopted by the airport owner, but an airport layout plan is available, the Division of Aeronautics is responsible for reviewing the plan and any associated activity projections for currency and suitability for airport land use planning purposes. The Division of Aeronautics may suggest modifications to the plan if deemed necessary. No Airport Plan Exists When no plan exists, the commission typically will need to prepare a simplified or diagrammatic airport layout drawing on which to base its land use compatibility plan. Such drawings need not be detailed. The only components essential to show are ones which may have off-airport compatibility implications—specifically: runways, runway protection zones, airport property lines and traffic patterns. Also, because lack of an airport layout plan mostly occurs only with regard to low-activity, often privately owned, airports for which few changes are anticipated, the plan merely needs to reflect the existing conditions. Typical Airport Traffic pattern Specific areas to be considered at and around airports are defined by two major Federal Aviation Administration criteria: Federal Aviation Regulation (FAR) Part 77 Objects Affecting Navigable Airspace and FAA Advisory Circular 150/5300-13 Airport Design Standards. These two primary documents provide the form the basis for delineating the limits of the environs affected by aircraft near airports. FAR Part 77 establishes standards for determining which structures pose potential obstructions to air navigation. It does this by establishing standards for defining obstructions to navigable airspace. These airspace areas are referred to as Imaginary Surfaces. Objects affected include existing or proposed objects of natural growth, terrain, or permanent or temporary construction including equipment that is permanent or temporary in character. The imaginary surfaces outlined in FAR Part 77 include Primary Surface Transitional Surface Horizontal Surface Conical Surface Approach Surface FAR Part 77 clearly defines these surfaces as follows: Primary Surface: The primary surface is longitudinally centered on a runway. When the runway has a specially prepared hard surface, the primary surface extends 200 feet beyond each end of that runway. When the runway has no specially prepared hard surface, or planned hard surface, the primary surface terminates at each end of the runway. The width of a primary surface ranges from 250 feet to 1,000 feet depending on the existing or planned approach and runway type (i.e., visual, non precision, or precision). Transitional Surface: Transitional surfaces extend outward and upward at right angles to the runway centerline and are extended at a slope of seven (7) feet horizontally for each foot vertically (7:1) from the sides of the primary and approach surfaces. The transitional surfaces extend to where they intercept the horizontal surface at a height of 150 feet above the runway elevation. For precision approach surfaces, which project through and beyond the limits of the conical surface, the transitional surface also extends a distance of 5,000 feet measured horizontally from the edge of the approach surface and at right angles to the runway centerline. depict the dimensional requirements of the transitional surface. Horizontal Surface: The horizontal surface is a horizontal plane located 150 feet above the established airport elevation, covering an area from the transitional surface to the conical surface. The perimeter is constructed by swinging arcs from the center of each end of the primary surface and connecting the adjacent arcs by lines tangent to those areas. The radius of each arc is 5,000 feet for all runway ends designated as utility or visual, or 10,000 feet for all other runway ends. Conical Surface: The conical surface is a surface extending upward and outward from the periphery of the horizontal surface at a slope of one foot for every 20 feet (20:1) for a horizontal distance of 4,000 feet. Approach Surface: Longitudinally centered on the extended runway centerline, the approach surface extends outward and upward from the end of the primary surface. An approach surface is applied to each end of each runway based upon the type of approach. The approach slope of a runway is a ratio of 20:1, 34:1, or 50:1, depending on the sophistication of the approach. The length of the approach surface varies, ranging from 5,000 feet to 50,000 feet. The inner edge of the approach surface is the same width as the primary surface and expands uniformly to a width ranging from 1,250 feet to 16,000 feet depending on the type of runway and approach. Compatible Land Uses According to the Wisconsin Department of Aviation (2002), the types of airport compatible land uses depend on the location and size of the airport, as well as the type and volume of aircraft using the facility. Most commercial industrial uses, especially those associated with the airport, are good neighbors. Land uses where the airport creates the demand, such as motels, restaurants, warehouses, shipping agencies, aircraft related industries, as well as industries that benefit from access to an airport, are compatible land uses. At airport locations where there is not now a demand for these uses near the airport, communities may find it desirable to promote the use of this land for commercial or industrial use through a program of aids and incentives. Buildings and structures must not obstruct the aerial approaches to the airport, interfere with aircraft radio communications, or affect a pilots vision due to glare or bright lights. Motels, restaurants and office buildings should also be soundproofed to make them more comfortable and attractive to clientele and employees. Other uses compatible with airports are large parks, conservatory areas and other open spaces. These land uses are created for public purposes and are opportunities for local government bodies to provide a compatible land use. Forestry services, landscape services, game preserves and some extractive industries such as mining and excavation are also land uses considered compatible with airports. Agriculture is another land use that is compatible with airport operations. While some types of animal farming are sensitive to aircraft noise, most agricultural uses are not adversely affected by airport operations. Agricultural land also allows the owner of property near the airport to make an efficient use of the land while benefiting the community in terms of airport protection. Incompatible Land Uses Incompatible airport land uses include residential development, schools, community centers, libraries, hospitals, religious service buildings, and tall structures. Residential housing is the most prevalent urban land use, and also the use most incompatible with aircraft operations. As residential developments fill the vacant or former agricultural land between the urban settlement and the airport, the possibility of the residential developments restricting the airports potential increases. Residential growth restricts the airport by acquiring the land needed for expansion and by removing the buffer between the airport and residential neighborhoods. This buffer is important because it diminishes the impact of aircraft noise and lessens the possibility of an airplane accident in the residential neighborhood. As residential uses expand into this area around the airport, homeowners inevitably express concerns regarding safety and noise. Wisconsin experienced a strong population growth du ring the 1990s, gaining almost 400,000 new residents. Metropolitan counties showed the most rapid growth. During a period of strong or rapid growth, residential uses have often developed too close to an airport. However, with careful planning there is no reason for the continued encroachment on the airport by this type of incompatible land use. Residential neighborhoods, schools, churches and other similar land uses are the most susceptible to the side effects of aircraft operations. It is neither in the interest of the homeowner nor the community to locate these uses where they will be subject to the greatest impact of aircraft takeoffs and landings. It is clearly in the public interest that action should be taken to prevent this land use conflict. Because this research seeks to highlight the impacts that land use have on the operations of the Tinson Pen, the aim is to identify the reciprocal effect of the aerodrome. Therefore the focus for the issue regarding residential communities locating near airports is not the associated noise impact on the community but the reciprocation of complaints which may apply pressure for an airports closure. Other examples of incompatible land uses around airports include wetland mitigation, retention ponds, and land fills. These may appear to be good land uses around an airport but are re stricted or could possibly be associated with wildlife hazards. Caution should also be exercised with wildlife preserves located near airports due to the possible wildlife hazards associated with them. The sound made by aircraft is a primary consideration in the determination of compatible land uses. Technical improvements in aircraft engines, flight paths that detour around populated areas, and changes in landing and takeoff procedures have continued to reduce the impact of aircraft noise. Aircraft will always create a level of noise that will make some land uses in the proximity of the airport incompatible. Compatibility Concerns The California Airport Land use compatibility handbook (2002) explained that airport land use compatibility concerns fall under two broad headings identified in state law: noise and safety. However, for the purposes of formulating airport land use compatibility policies and criteria, further divided these concerns into four categories. These categories are noise, safety, overflight and airspace protection. The ICAO Environmental controls and land use (2001) highlighted the fact that there are basic categories of concern when discussing compatible land uses. The following outlines the top priority items that need to be addressed as part of a land use compatibility program. Some factors to consider include the density of developments and the height of structures. Other conditions to consider when planning for safe airport environs include distracting lights, reflective glare, smoke, dust, induced fog, electronic interference, and bird attractants. These conditions can distract the pilot and interfere with their safe approach and departure from an airport. Land uses that can lead to, or contribute to, these conditions should be discouraged in the airport environs. In particular, proposed development should not be permitted beneath the approach surface of a runway if that development generates any of the potentially hazardous conditions described in the following paragraphs. This is by no means an inclusive list, however, it illustrates the diverse types of land uses that a planner needs to be cognizant of when developing an airport land use plan. Density Development A primary means of limiting the risks of damage or injury to persons or property on the ground due to near-airport aircraft accidents is to limit the density of land use development in these areas. The question of where to set these limits is dependent upon both the probability of an accident and the degree of risk that the community finds acceptable. From the previous sections, it is clear that accident probabilities increase with closer proximity to runway ends both because of greater concentration of aircraft over that area and because aircraft are flying at low altitude. The areas where aircraft regularly fly less than 500 feet above the ground are regarded as the most critical. Low flight altitudes present the greatest risks because they offer pilots less opportunity to recover from unexpected occurrences. Because aircraft are turning to follow the traffic pattern, this area encompasses more than just the area beneath the FAR Part 77 approach surface. Turns mostly take place bet ween 2,000 and 5,000 feet from the runway end, dependi

Free College Admissions Essays: Beyond Poverty and Misfortune :: College Admissions Essays

Beyond Poverty and Misfortune    Ever since I was a young kid I have always been interested with aircraft. I was so curious of how airplane's fly. I remember taking my toys apart to see how it works. As a kid I wanted to go to the airport to watch the airplanes land and fly and pondered how this happens. Other kids wanted to go to the amusement places. As I grew older I became more and more interested in aircraft and the technology behind it. I always involved myself with aviation early on. I read books and magazines on aviation, took museum tours, built model airplanes. When I was younger my father would take me to aircraft repair facilities where I would watch in great fascination. In my teens, went up to the military bases and befriended many soldiers involved with aircraft and asked them numerous questions. I got to meet many aeronautics engineers and borrowed their old textbooks and read them till the wee hours of the morning. As technology improved with information superhighway, I logged on the web. Stayed up for hours and hours searching through web pages and web pages of information about aircraft and technology.    I started my elementary school in the Philippines, then we moved to U.S. and continued my high school education and graduated. Enrolled at the CCSF to pursue my college education and now I am in the 2nd year in CCSF taking aeronautics. My goal now is to obtain my AS degree from the City College of San Francisco (CCSF) so I can transfer to a University and get a Bachelors degree and to continue for my Masters degree in Aeronautics Engineering. I will strive hard to reach the peak level of my career which is a Professor and hopefully to be an aeronautic professor so can help and share my knowledge and experience to the new students who wish to be an aeronautics engineer someday. I completed 62 units from CCSF so far. Currently, I'm taking 21 units. With my hard work in doing my homework and submitted on time; studied hard and gained higher grades on my tests; and did extra credits, I was able to earned a GPA 4.0 last semester `and I was included on the current dean's list in aeronautic s. I received an achievement award for this presented in the Chancellor's Award Ceremony last December 1998 in CCSF.